AN OVERVIEW OF PHILOSOPHY

I.

THE SCOPE AND METHODS OF PHILOSOPHY

A. "the love of wisdom"

B. ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY

i. logical analysis

ii. linguistic analysis

C. SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY [also called synthetic philosophy and synoptic philosophy]

i. metaphysics: theories of reality

ii. epistemology: theories of knowledge

iii. axiology: value theory

     a. values:

          (i) quality standards

by which we judge rightness/wrongness;
by which we rate things as better/worse;
by which we prefer;
by which we specify a course of action.

          (ii) A value may be the goal of any interest,

           desire, or need.

          (iii) A value may be a norm or standard.

Examples: love, excellence, happiness, personal growth, pleasure, service, salvation, praise, humane, quality, human dignity, fairness, justice, freedom, friendship, partnership, faithfulness, cooperation, education, privacy, work, independence, self-reliance, oneness with universal spirit, rationality, positive thinking, emotional honesty, intimacy, self-understanding, self-acceptance, concernfulness, compassion, appropriateness, purchasing power, self-control, etc.

     b. Values may be:

intrinsic [for its own sake, in and of itself: friendship; the Mona Lisa];
or
extrinsic [for what it does; it is good for something else (most eyeglasses, pens, and cars)

     c. Are any values objective [independent of human opinion;

     built into nature itself]?

     d. Are any values subjective [human opinion]?

     e. Are some values objective and others subjective?

         If so, by what method can they be distinguished?

D. INESCAPABILITY OF PHILOSOPHICAL BELIEFS

E. PHILOSOPHICAL METHODS

i. dialectic: interplay of ideas

ii. system building

     a. start with convictions taken for granted

     b. use of reason [logical implications of ideas]

     c. use of sense experiences: logical implications of

     d. further dialectic re:

        convictions taken for granted;

        logical implications reached via reason;

        conclusions reached via sense experiences.

F. AREAS NOT SUBJECT DIRECTLY TO PHILOSOPHICAL METHODS INCLUDE:

i. experimental sciences/technological developments

ii. mathematical computations

iii. occupational skills/procedures

iv. sampling, other data gathering

G. AREAS OF PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY:

i. convictions taken for granted in science, psychology,
    economics,.

    religion, art, mathematics, political theory, law, etc.

ii. life issues not subject to direct scientific inquiry:

   mind/soul/brain; God/life-after-death/grace/miracles, etc.;

   values;"oughts," "shoulds," "musts," etc.

H. OBSTACLES TO CLEAR THINKING

i. tradition: "It's always been that way."

ii. common sense: "Use your common sense."

iii. prejudice: 'My mind is already made up."

iv. propaganda: "Our way is the only way."

v. authoritarianism: "Because I say so!"

vi. generalize: "They're all that way."

vii. universalize: "What's good for me is good for others."

viii. ad hominem: "You know why she said that, don't you?"

ix. impatience: "I've got know right now."

x. idealism: "I'm totally committed to the idea that ......"

xi. feelings: "I feel that ..........."

     reflection on feelings=psychology

     reflection on thoughts=philosophy

II.

ISSUES IN ETHICAL THEORY

A. WHAT IS "ETHICS?"

     Ethics is the examination of values in
     human conduct: what is morally

     right and wrong in human behavior and relations?

     ["Business ethics" is the examination of the values, the moral

     dimension, of business practices.]

     "Ethics" may also be used as a synonym for
     "morality" or moral code.

     [What is that firm's ethics?]

B. TYPES OF ETHICAL STUDY

   Descriptive Ethics describes existing moral
   views and practices. (study can be done by
   anthropologists and others)

   Philosophical ethics

   i. Normative Ethics (part of speculative/synthetic philosophy)

          a) General Normative Ethics: what are the

          NORMS, standards, and values by which

          conduct may be judged as morally good or bad?

          How can such norms be justified?

          What is morally right regardless of what
          is actually going on?

          b) Applied Normative Ethics: the application of norms
          to specific moral issues

     ii. Metaethics or Analytic Ethics (part of analytic philosophy)

          a) linguistic analysis of "responsible." "rights," etc.

          b) logical analysis of moral reasoning for validity

C. SOME ISSUES IN METAETHICS

     i. Are all ethical words merely emotive or poetic?
         If so, morality is a matter of personal or social taste,
         and all ethical standards are purely subjective and relative.

         Or, is there some objectivity to ethical norms?
         Are there criteria for judging competing systems of value?

     ii. Distinction between evaluative and non-evaluative
         statements:

          a) non-evaluative (reports data minus valuing):

"The bridge is made of stone." [no approval or disapproval stated or implied]

          b) evaluative, but not morally evaluative:

"That's a really good bridge!" ["good" evaluates, but not in a moral sense]

          c) evaluative, morally:

"She is a GOOD person." ["good" evaluates morally]

     iii. "Rights"

     a) are there any natural, universal, inalienable rights?

     b) are rights relative to individuals and societies?

     c) can one "waive" rights? [voluntarily or
          by one's behavior]

     iv. "Freedom" and "Responsible"

     a) is human behavior determined and
          therefore not morally responsible?

     b) is human behavior totally free and therefore
          always the moral responsibility of the individual?

     c) are there degrees of freedom and moral responsibility,
          and how are these to be known?

III.

A GUIDE FOR EXTRACTING VALUES FROM SITUATIONS

A. What is/are raising the value issue(s); what's happening?

[example: treatment of pain associated with a broken leg]

B. What value(s) is/are at stake in this situation?

[intervention vs. non-intervention with certain painkillers]

C. What supports the competing values (a) at the general level
     and (b) the situation level?

[suffering eased vs. danger of addiction]

D. What other pertinent philosophical problems are evident?

[who should decide?]

IV.

APPROACHES TO MORAL DECISION-MAKING

A. CHOOSE ONE OR MORE SOURCES:

B. CHOICES:

l) Choose Absolute(s) and/or Principles

2) Choose Method of Applying Absolute(s) and/or Principles

     i. "Go by the book." [legalism; formalism]

     ii. "Go by the probable consequences." [situational]

C. OTHER ISSUES:

     relativism

     pluralism

     free-will; responsibility

     blik; paradigm

     "fate to choice" (Peter Berger)

D. SUMMARY OF KOHLBERG'S LEVELS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Individuals might be at more than one stage in their moral development, depending on the issue, the time of their lives, etc.

Level One: PREMORAL [morality based on fearful obedience or self-gratification]

Stage 1: Obey authorities, in order to avoid punishment.

Stage 2: Satisfy one's own needs (including "You do for me, and I'll do for you." Specific rewards for oneself are gained by behaving morally.)

Level Two: CONVENTIONAL [morality based on a group's norms]

Stage 3: Follow customary moral standards, in order to obtain approval of others, or to be regarded as good or nice.

Stage 4: Law and Order [Obey authority and follow rules, in order to preserve social harmony.]

Level Three: PRINCIPLES [examine, choose, & internalize principles]

Stage 5: Rely on internalized personal standards of social responsibility.

Stage 6: Rely on internalized moral principles believed to be universally valid.

V.

SOME MAJOR ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

[The function and justification of such principles become clear, as we consider rationally the probable consequences of their opposites, if believed and practiced universally. The full meanings of principles are not self-evident; they must be interpreted and applied.]

RESPECT FOR PERSONS

Human beings should be treated as subjects, not objects.

The life of persons is of significant value.

AUTONOMY

Human beings deserve personal liberty to make judgments and decisions about their own lives (within

moral limits); individual informed consent is prized.

Human beings should be self-determining within the contexts of their own societies.

BENEFICENCE

Do good; promote goodness.

[possibly, "Love your neighbor as yourself."]

NONMALEFICENCE

Do no harm; prevent harm.

JUSTICE

Human beings ought to be provided with what is fair and what is deserved.

Goodness should be distributed among people in fair ways.

[Three interpretations of distributing fairly:

   1. according to need or ability;

   2. according to merit;

   3. equally, without regard for
    need, ability, or merit.]

HONESTY

Telling the truth is the norm; it is essential to promote and maintain respect for persons and for autonomy.

[The "moral lie" is the exception.]

DERIVATIVE PRINCIPLES

Confidentiality; Privacy; Informed Consent