GLOSSARY from the New Interpreter’s Study Bible [Excerpts]
which may be purchased from Amazon.com at:
http://www.amazon.com/New-Interpreters-Study-Bible-Apocrypha/dp/0687278325/ref=sr_1_1/104-8993453-3796731?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1178011289&sr=1-1
abomination
An act or an object that is abhorrent, repulsive, or that is contrary to one’s
religious practices or beliefs (e.g., Gen 43:32; Prov 3:32).
adonai
A Hebrew word translated “lord,” that can be used to refer to a person or for
the divine name. Ancient Hebrew practice was not to pronounce the sacred name of
God (YHWH), but instead to substitute ’Adonai. (See “YHWH”).
allegory
A narrative or other literary piece that is highly symbolic, such that the
characters and events in the story represent either abstract ideas or characters
and events in some other setting (e.g., Ezek 17:2-10). Sometimes it is difficult
to determine whether the original author meant a particular narrative to be an
allegory, so that an “allegorical” interpretation is a possibility but not a
certainty.
alternate reading
No “original Hebrew” or “original Greek” manuscript of the Bible exists, and for
that reason translators must work from a number of manuscripts, some of which
are more reliable than others. At times there is a difference between the
documents and, if the difference is significant, the translator will often
choose from the more reliable manuscript(s) and put a note at the bottom of a
page indicating the “alternate reading” from other manuscripts. See, e.g., the
text note at Ezek 3:15. (See also the Interpretation Guide: “Reliability of
Scripture,” 2243.)
anagogical
One of the four types of biblical interpretation used by medieval interpreters.
This type looks at a text’s impact on the future, on destiny; concrete elements
of the text represent elements of the spiritual realm, but an anagogical view is
especially concerned with how a text draws a person toward the future. A text
that instills future hope can be anagogical. (See also tropological.)
anathema
A Greek term originally used to mean something set up, devoted, to God (e.g.,
Luke 21:5, “dedicated”), but later came to mean the opposite, something cursed
(as in Lev 27:28-29).
annunciation
Simply an announcement; in particular, “the Annunciation” refers to the
announcement to Mary by the angel Gabriel that she would bear a son, Jesus, Son
of God (Luke 1:26-38).
anthropomorphism
The description of God in human terms, either with physical attributes (e.g.,
walking in the garden, Gen 3:8; with white hair, Dan 7:9) or having human urges
and feelings (e.g., sorrow, Gen 6:6-7). Also an adjective, anthropomorphic.
aphorism
A short, pithy statement of truth or opinion; a saying. Also, as an adjective,
aphoristic. Much of James is aphoristic, with its frequent short, moral truths
(e.g., Jas 1:26).
apocalypticism
A belief in two ages, the present and the age to come, in which the present evil
will be overcome by the intervention of God into history, and God’s reign will
usher in a perfect and eternal age. An apocalypse is a literary piece that
exemplifies this belief (e.g., Revelation, and the visions in Dan 7–12), often
in the form of visions. Also an adjective, apocalyptic.
Apocrypha
Strictly, this is a group of books (approx. 15) and parts of books that are
included in the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Bibles but not in the Protestant
Bible. Many Protestant Bibles today include those books in a separate section
called “The Apocrypha.” Most Protestant groups rejected the Apocrypha as
Scripture during or after the Reformation.
apodictic
A type of law, commandment, or prohibition that is unconditional, as in “Do not
kill!” The Ten Commandments (Exod 20:1-17) are examples of apodictic law (cf.
“casuistic law”).
archetype
An original model after which other things are patterned. In biblical studies it
can be a person, event, a literary form, or the original manuscript from which
other manuscripts are copied. Also adjectives archetypal, archetypical.
ascension
The act of rising, referring to a variety of acts, such as a king’s or God’s
ascension to the throne (e.g., in the “enthronement psalms”; Pss 29, 93, 95–99)
or a person’s ascension to heaven (as with Enoch, Gen 5:24). Specifically in the
NT, “the Ascension” refers to Jesus’ ascension into heaven after his
post-resurrection appearance to the disciples (Acts 1:2-11).
asceticism
A type of behavior characterized by self-denial and, sometimes, bodily
mistreatment. Examples of ascetic behavior include extreme fasting, sleep
deprivation, and self-flagellation. In extreme belief, asceticism drives
self-denial, which releases the soul from bondage to the body and moves a person
closer to union with the divine.
assembly
Several Hebrew words are variously translated “assembly” and “congregation,” and
in general they refer to a gathering, usually of people. Specifically, assembly
refers to the worshiping community of Israel and, at times, to the group of
elders, as in Lev 4:13-14.
atonement
A process of making amends for a wrong done, or a reconciliation between a
person or group and God. In the OT there are numerous examples of sacrifices and
acts by priests for atonement (e.g., Lev 16:9-11; Num 15:28). NT writers often
see Jesus as the ultimate atonement, as in Rom 3:25.
Baal
Usually Baal (also spelled ba’al) refers to one or a number of Canaanite gods.
It can be used as a general term for Canaanite gods (e.g., Judg 2:11), as a part
of the name of a specific god (as Baal-berith, Judg 8:33), or as a proper name
for a specific god in Canaanite mythology (e.g., 1 Kgs 16:32).
blasphemy
The word comes directly from the Greek and means to slander, curse, or show
contempt. In many cases blasphemy refers to contemptuous behavior toward God.
(See Lev 24:16; Matt 12:31.) One of the accusations against Jesus was blasphemy
(Matt 26:65; John 10:30-33).
BCE or CE
Meaning “Before the Common Era” or “Common Era,” which have replaced the Latin
term anno Domini (“Year of the Lord”), abbreviated A.D., and “Before Christ,”
abbreviated B.C. BCE and CE (in small caps) are now the accepted “common”
abbreviations for dating. Examples: An exile from Judah took place in the 6th
cent. BCE. The destruction of Jerusalem occurred in 70 CE.
casuistic
Case law, law applied to specific cases, most commonly in the form “If . . . ,
then . . .” where a crime is mentioned, then its punishment (e.g., Deut
22:23-29). See, in contrast, the discussion of apodictic law.
charism/charisma
Directly from the Greek, it is often translated “gift” but, in Christian
context, it most often means spiritual gift(s) granted through grace (e.g., Rom
5:15-16; 1 Cor 7:7).
Christology
Jesus’ understanding of himself, or the church’s (or a particular writer’s)
understanding of Jesus as the Christ. Also used to refer to a theological
discipline, the formal study of Christ. Also an adjective, christological.
chronology
Refers to the dating and historical order of events and people. A chronology can
be a simple statement relating dates of events (e.g., 1 Kgs 6:1) or a series of
events in historical order (as throughout 1 and 2 Kings). Or it can be a
nonbiblical statement or timeline of biblical events, such as a chart of
Israel’s and Judah’s kings. (See the Chronologies, 2293.)
clean/unclean
An animal species designated “clean” by Jewish law means that it is ritually
acceptable for sacrifice and human consumption (e.g., Lev 11:2-43). Unclean
animals are unacceptable for either use. An animal that is of a clean species
can become unclean under certain circumstances. More widely, the terms designate
an object that is either in its assigned place or out of place. Skin, and other
surface coverings, should be intact. Therefore, diseased or “leprous” skin is
unclean (Lev 13–14). These distinctions became moot in Christianity, given
Peter’s vision in Acts 10:10-16.
codex
An ancient manuscript in book form, not scroll form. The pages were often
papyrus or vellum, and sometimes codices (the plural) were bound in leather.
commentary
A broad term for a book or other writing that discusses biblical text, chapter
by chapter and verse by verse.
cosmology
A person’s or people’s concept or view of the universe. Much of one ancient
cosmology (view of the universe) is revealed in the Genesis 1 narrative of
creation.
cosmos
Directly from the Greek, this refers to the ordered universe, and the Greek word
is often translated “universe,” as in Col 2:8.
covenant
Broadly, a treaty, contract, or agreement between two parties, as between David
and Abner in 2 Sam 3:12-13. Covenants became a way of understanding the
relationship between God and an individual, as in the covenant with Abraham
(Genesis 15), or between God and a people, particularly Israel (Deut 29:1). NT
writers recall the covenants God made with Israel (Luke 1:72) but also claim a
new covenant with God (Luke 22:20).
criticism
The application of specific methods of study to biblical writings to determine
their origins, editing, influences, sources, traditions, forms, and claims, in
order to better understand and interpret the biblical text.
cubit
A common unit of measure in biblical texts, based on the distance from one’s
elbow to the tips of one’s fingers, approx. 18 inches.
cult
In biblical studies, this term is neutral and refers to the external features of
a religion or religious group. Thus, “Israelite cult” refers to the priests,
Temple, sacrifices, rituals, and other physical aspects of Israelite liturgy or
religion. Although in the present-day the term “cult” is used negatively, in
biblical studies the term can refer as easily to Israelite religion as the
religious practices of the Philistines. Also as an adjective, cultic.
defile
Strictly, to make a person, animal, or object unclean, meaning to make it
ritually impure or unfit. There are many examples, such as to corrupt a person
sexually (Ezek 18:5-6), desecrate an object (in the tabernacle, Num 19:13), or
defile oneself (Mark 7:14-15). See “unclean.” Also a noun, defilement.
deuterocanonical
Meaning “secondarily canonical,” in its strictest use it refers to the
Apocrypha, the books and parts of books found in the Roman Catholic and Orthodox
Bible but not in the Protestant. More broadly, it can refer to other books
outside the canon, and also to pieces that are found to have been added at some
point in the transmission of a text, such as Mark 16:9-20, which is probably an
addition and is not found in early manuscripts of that Gospel.
diaspora
Directly from the Greek, meaning scattered abroad, this is used most often to
refer to groups of Jews residing in places outside of Palestine (e.g., in
Egypt), especially after the Babylonian exile. Also diaspora Jews or diaspora
Judaism.
discourse
A relatively lengthy speech or writing on a particular theme, such as one on the
nature of Jesus through the words of John the Baptist (John 3:31-36). The Gospel
of John tends to use discourse in Jesus’ speech compared to the short, pithy
sayings of Jesus in the other Gospels. The letter to the Hebrews uses discourse
as an extended formal argument on particular themes, such as the priesthood of
all believers.
divination
A method of determining God’s will through some ritual process called divining
(e.g., Ezek 21:26; Zech 10:2; Acts 16:16).
doxology
An expression of praise to God often, but not necessarily, in hymn or poetic
form. Ps 21:13 ends the poem with a brief doxology.
egalitarian
Characterized by belief in the equality of people.
epiphany
In general, a sudden appearance of God’s will or power by some means that
affects the senses, from the Greek meaning of the word as “appearance,
manifestation.” A “theophany” (see below) is such an epiphany, specifically an
appearance of God (e.g., Gen 12:7) or of God through Jesus (e.g., Phil 2:5-11).
epithet
A term or phrase that describes a person (or God), which is used in place of the
name of that person. “LORD of Hosts” is sometimes used for Israel’s God in place
of the name YHWH (e.g., 1 Sam 1:3). LORD of Hosts describes YHWH’s role as
commander-in-chief of the heavenly army.
eschatology / eschaton / realized eschatology
The Greek eschatos means “last thing” (e.g., Rev 1:17; “I am the first and the
last.”). But in the context of eschatology (a non-biblical term), the eschaton
specifically means the last period of history. Eschatology, then, concerns the
concepts and beliefs about the future, specifically about the last period of
history. There are a variety of these throughout biblical literature. Most
commonly, eschatology involves a new age, a time that is not corrupt and is
perfect and, in the context of the worship of God, a time when evil is defeated
and God is in full control. Some NT interpreters suggest “realized eschatology,”
which draws from Jesus’ idea of his own appearance and ministry on earth. Also
an adjective, eschatological.
exegesis
From the Greek, meaning “interpretation,” exegesis is a process of critical
analysis and explanation of a text, using the methods available to an
interpreter. In biblical studies, exegesis is most effective when studying the
passage in the Greek or Hebrew text.
exhort/exhortation
To urge by strong argument, advice, or appeal. Often, though not always, an
exhortation is a warning or caution to refrain from some act or belief, as in 2
Tim 3:11-12.
expiation
A process of removing or receiving forgiveness for sin; atonement. Although it
is often confused with propitiation, another type of atonement, expiation
specifically looks at the object causing the sin, not at God and the repair of a
broken relationship with God. At Num 35:33 the expiation repairs a pollution of
the land, and in 2 Sam 21:3 an expiation seeks to restore a relationship between
people. Neither is directly concerned with appeasing God or restoring a
covenantal relationship with God.
etymology
The study of the origin and history of development of a word and its meaning. In
working with ancient languages this process is particularly important in order
to determine the meanings of words and forms of words at specific points in
history and in particular texts.
eucharist
The Greek means “thanksgiving,” but in common contemporary use “eucharist”
specifically refers to the event of the Last Supper (or Lord’s Supper), although
this liturgical meaning is post-biblical. Scholars sometimes use the word to
refer to Jesus’ meal with his disciples (Matt 26:17-35; Mark 14:12-25; Luke
22:7-23) or to various early Christian meals (1 Cor 11:17-34).
feast/festival
In the Bible, feast and festival are often equivalent and interchangeable terms.
They were observances of historical events in the relationship between God and
the people, occasions of joy and celebration, often involving ritual, elaborate
food, music, dancing, and prayers. A number of such feasts were prescribed and
occurred annually or at other regular intervals (e.g., the sabbatical year, Exod
21:2-6), but some also occurred naturally as with a military victory (1 Sam
18:6-7).
genre
A French word meaning “kind” or “style.” In literature, including biblical
literature, it is a categorization of types (kinds) of writing according to
their forms. This may apply on a large scale, as identifying a book as an
epistle (letter), Gospel, or apocalypse, or on a smaller form, identifying a
section of text as a prophetic oracle or a proverb.
Gentile
A non-Jew, whether an individual, a group, or a nation. The idea began with the
Hebrew goyim referring to the seven nations not driven out of the land (Josh
24:11). In the NT, as the early Christian movement spread to non-Jews there was
much controversy involving how the movement could include both Jews and Gentiles
(Gal 2:1-2).
Hebrew
The original language of most of the OT; also an ethnic term for the people of
Israel (Gen 14:13; Phlm 3:4b-5. The origin of the term is not clear, but it
derives from an infrequent ethnic designation in the OT (1 Sam 13:19) and
perhaps from one of the branches of the OT people, descended from Eber (Gen
10:21-25).
Hellenism / Hellenization
Hellenism in the broad sense refers to the Greek culture, including its ideas,
implements, and civilization. Hellenization was the process, either active or
passive, by which Jews and others who had been conquered by Alexander the Great
assimilated various facets of Greek culture. In some writings, the term
“Hellenists” refers to Greek-speaking Christians who are contrasted with
Hebrew-speaking Christians as in Acts 6:1.
hypostasis
In general, this refers to an underlying reality. Specifically, in Christianity
it refers to the essence of Jesus, uniting his divine and human nature, but it
can also refer to any of the three manifestations of the Trinity.
hypostatization
The construing of a conceptual entity as a real one, as in personifying Wisdom (Prov
8:1).
immanent
Often used in tension with the term “transcendent,” such that the God who is
supremely elevated in majesty (i.e., is transcendent) is at the same time
actively involved in human affairs (i.e., immanent).
incantation
A ceremonial chant or saying used by magicians to heal people or to exorcise
evil spirits. Acts 19:13-16 reports that some people tried to use the name of
Jesus in incantations to exorcise evil spirits, but failed.
iniquity
Gross immorality or injustice, wickedness. Often interchangeable with the noun,
“sin” (e.g., Exod 34:9; Rom 6:19).
integrity
Wholeness, completeness; especially a state of strictly adhering to a moral code
(e.g., Job 2:3; Prov 11:3; Ps 7:8).
intercession
The act of mediating or going between, especially relative but not limited to
prayer. Intercessory prayer is when someone prays to God on behalf of someone
else; e.g., Moses on behalf of the people in Num 11:2 and Paul’s encouragement
to early Christians in 1 Tim 2:1. Jesus, too, intercedes (John 17:9) and much of
Christianity begins to see Jesus as the ultimate intercessor: contemporary
Christian prayers often end with a phrase such as “through Jesus Christ our
Lord.”
interdict
A law or religious sanction that prevents, prohibits, or forbids something, as
does the king in Dan 6:7-9, where people are prohibited from praying to anyone
except the king.
intermediary
A person who mediates or acts as an agent between persons or things.
Judaizer
A non-biblical term for early Christians who insisted on the necessity of
following the practices of Judaism. There was significant conflict in the early
church surrounding these issues, and Acts 15 describes “no small dissension and
debate” that Paul and Barnabas had with Judaizers. Much of Paul’s letter to the
Galatians is concerned with the factions (Judaizers) who insist on circumcision
(see Gal 2:11-12; 5:6).
juxtapose / juxtaposition
To place side by side, especially to compare. Juxtaposition is the act of
placing things side by side, or the state of being placed that way. In Bible
study, juxtaposition usually refers to texts, or different versions of the same
narrative.
LXX
See Septuagint.
Masoretes
Authoritative teachers, scribes, and preservers of the Hebrew text of the
Scriptures, the masorah, during the 6th through the 10th cents. CE.
Masoretic Text (MT)
The text of the Hebrew Bible or the Christian OT as preserved by the Masoretes.
This text contains marks of punctuation and vocalization (including vowel
markings, because Hebrew was a language that, when written, consisted only of
consonants) and forms the basis of all modern texts of the Hebrew Scriptures.
matriarch
In male-dominated ancient societies, the matriarch was the chief wife of the
patriarch. In ancient Israel, Sarah and Rebekah were matriarchs.
Midrash
See under Rabbinic literature.
Mishnah
See under Rabbinic literature.
monolatry
The worship of a single deity, although not necessarily denying the existence of
other gods. Prophets in ancient Israel apparently did not assume that YHWH,
Israel’s God, was the only god, but that YHWH was the most powerful of all
gods—and was the only deity Israelites should be worshiping. See the great
contest on Mt. Carmel between Elijah and the prophets of Baal (1 Kgs 18:24).
motif
A recurring theme or element in a literary piece.
narrative
A general type of text where events and people, whether real or not, are
described. A narrative is not in the form of poetry, proverbs, lists, or laws,
but flows like a story.
oracle
A divine message to humans. A prophetic oracle refers to the prophet’s words
that claim to be the words of God. An oracle can also mean the person who
delivers God’s word.
parable
The word comes from the Greek, but the Bible applies the Greek term to a broader
range of literary forms (e.g., proverb, riddle, simile) than is currently
common. In contemporary usage, most persons understand parable to be a brief
narrative that forcefully illustrates a single idea. Often the narrative is in
metaphorical rather than direct language, and the term is most often used with
the “parables” of Jesus (e.g., the wedding feast, Matt 22:1-14).
parabolic
A type of saying or speech in which a comparison or contradiction is made by
using figurative speech, as Jesus’ insistence that his hearers are the salt of
the earth (Matt 5:13).
paradigm
A model, or a system of ideas. Ps 100 is a paradigm for psalms of praise, and
Elijah is a paradigm for prophetic behavior.
parallelism / staircase
One of the fundamental features of Hebrew poetry where two (or three) lines of
poetry are closely related. The lines may be synonymous, such that the second
line repeats the first but with different terms (e.g., Ps 19:1, “The heavens are
telling the glory of God, and the firmament proclaims his handiwork.”);
antithetic, where the second line opposes the first (e.g., Prov 10:12, “Hatred
stirs up strife, but love covers all offenses.”); or synthetic/staircase, where
the second line takes the first farther (e.g., John 8:32, “You will know the
truth, and the truth will make you free.”).
parousia
A Greek term, meaning “arrival,” used in early Christianity to refer to the
second coming of Christ. In Matt 24:3 the disciples ask Jesus, “What will be the
sign of your coming (Gk. parousia) and of the end of the age?”
patriarch
In general, the male who rules a tribe or family. Specifically in ancient
Israel, the term “patriarchs” most often refers to Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and
the sons of Jacob. Also an adjective in social studies, patriarchal, which
refers to a culture or literature that is dominated by males.
penitent/penitence
Penitence, a postbiblical term, is a state of being penitent and having regret
for wrongdoing (e.g., 2 Chr 34:27). Cf. the biblical concept of repenting,
meaning not only regret for wrongdoing but also a turning away from sin and back
to right relationship with God. See Mark 1:4 where John the Baptist baptizes for
repentance and forgiveness.
Pentateuch / Pentateuchal
Refers to the first five (and thus its Greek prefix, penta) books of the OT,
also known in Judaism as the Torah, the first of the three divisions of the
Jewish Scriptures. Also the adjective, Pentateuchal.
Pentecost
The Greek term for the Jewish Festival of Weeks, celebrated at the beginning of
the wheat harvest (Exod 34:22; 1 Cor 16:8). Since the account of the gift of the
Holy Spirit to Christians at Pentecost (Acts 2), Pentecost has taken on
significance for Christians that is unrelated to the Jewish Festival of Weeks.
pericope
A small, self-contained unit of Scripture. A pericope is not necessarily a verse
or a chapter but a unit that makes sense for interpretive purposes, structurally
or in terms of a paragraph theme.
polemic
An argument, especially a text that promotes one side of an argument or one
point of view. The story of the Tower of Babel has sometimes been seen as a
polemic against human pride.
portent
A sign of some calamity that is about to occur; an omen, as in Rev 12:1, 3.
However, a portent is not necessarily ominous or a sign of something immediate,
as in Deut 28:46, where it is simply another word for “sign.”
premise
Aristotle put forth the syllogism as a logical progression of deductive
reasoning. A syllogism consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a
conclusion. The premises are the bases for the conclusion in an argument. One
frequent example of a syllogism is: “All humans are mortal (major premise): I am
a human (minor premise): therefore, I am mortal (conclusion). See also
“enthymeme.”
profane
As an adjective or verb, the opposite of holy, sometimes in opposition to
ritually clean (1 Tim 1:9; Acts 10:15; Prov 30:8-9; Num 18:32; see “clean or
unclean”). Less frequently, something profane is something common or vulgar.
prolepsis
A literary device, particularly in prophecy, where the prophet treats an event
as past when it is yet to occur. In Matt 22:38 Jesus refers to the destruction
of Jerusalem as if one can see it now, although it will not happen for decades.
(See also Amos 5:1-3 where Amos laments the fall of Israel well before it
actually happens.)
Pseudepigrapha
The Greek meaning is “falsely titled.” The term “pseudepigraphic” can refer to
any pseudonymous literary work, meaning a work attributed to someone who did not
actually write it, a common practice in ancient writing. But “the Pseudepigrapha”
commonly refers to a group of Hebrew (and some Greek) writings, not in the OT or
in the Apocrypha, written between c. 400 BCE and 200 CE. These writings
represent a variety of genres and are not, by any means, each pseudepigraphic—the
name for the collection is simply traditional. Although there is wide agreement
as to a number of pieces that are to be included in the Pseudepigrapha, there is
no standard historical collection or firm list of the pieces in the
Pseudepigrapha.
pseudonymous
Writing under someone else’s name. Some scholars think that 1 Peter was not
likely written by Peter but by someone else who possibly knew Peter and attached
his name to the letter.
Qumran
Although this location is not mentioned in the Bible, it is the historical site
of a community near which the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered. These scrolls
were almost certainly from the Qumran community.
Rabbinic literature
Consisting of a number of collections (e.g., Mishnah, Gemara, which together
comprise the Talmud) of laws, customs, and commentary by rabbis (Jewish teachers
and scholars), developing in early Judaism at approximately the same time that
the Christian canon was forming into the OT and NT. The Mishnah, e.g., collects
and offers commentary by teachers (rabbis) on the Torah; see “Pentateuch.”
reconciliation
To reconcile means to re-establish a relationship. Biblically, there are
instances of reconciliation between persons (Matt 5:23-24) or between groups of
people (e.g., Acts 12:20), but most often the reconciliation is between a group
of people and God. In the NT, reconciliation is often mediated by Jesus (e.g.,
Rom 5:11), and it is always humans who stand in need of reconciliation with God,
never the other way around.
redactor or redaction
A redactor is an editor, specifically someone who, at some point in the history
of a text, edited it to blend several versions together, or to set a poem in the
middle of a story. Redaction is the process of that editing, or it can mean the
result of the editing, a particular “edition.” Biblical scholars often
understand texts as the final product of one or more redactors.
resident alien
Someone without rights of citizenship living among a people. Israel developed
laws about how to treat resident aliens (e.g., Exod 12:48). For a time, Abraham
lived in Egypt as a resident alien (Gen 12:10).
retributive justice
A theological view where obedience to God results in blessings while
disobedience results in punishment. Although this view is certainly not
universal in the Bible, it is widespread.
rhetoric
In biblical studies, “rhetoric” refers to the style of writing, the art of
composition such that the written piece comes to serve a particular purpose,
whether descriptive, persuasive, or interpretive. Rhetorical criticism in
biblical studies focuses on the form and style of the written piece and how that
form is used. Also an adjective, rhetorical.
ritual/rite
A prescribed act or order of a religious ceremony (Lev 6:9; John 2:6; Acts
24:18; Heb 9:6).
sabaoth
Directly from the Hebrew, this term is most often translated, “hosts,” and in
almost every case is associated with the epithet, “Lord of hosts,” or “Lord God
of hosts.” This refers to the LORD as commander-in-chief of the heavenly army,
and “hosts” refers to the forces that are available to God to wage war (e.g.,
Amos 6:8; Rom 9:29).
sage
A wise person, a teacher of wisdom (e.g., Esth 1:13; Matt 25:34). The Hebrew
word most commonly translated “sage” has the same root as the word translated
“wisdom.” Scholars speculate that proverbs represent one form of the teachings
of sages.
seer
A visionary; someone who receives messages from God through visions. As in
English, where the term “seer” is literally one who sees, the Hebrew term ro’eh,
most often translated “seer,” comes from the verb ra’ah, meaning “to see.”
Samuel was often called a seer (e.g., 1 Sam 9:9; 1 Chr 26:28-29).
Septuagint (LXX)
From the Latin “seventy,” and thus the Roman abbreviation LXX, it was the
earliest Greek translation of the Torah and later included all of the OT and the
Apocrypha. Tradition attributes the translation to 70 or 72 elders, thus the
name. The LXX became very popular among early Greek-speaking Christians and was
significant in the history of Bible translation. Early manuscripts of the LXX
remain an important source for Bible translators and interpreters.
Sheol
The Hebrew term refers on one level to the depths of the earth, literally, since
it was where the dead were buried. On another level, it was the dwelling place
of the dead (see “shades”), who experienced a state of being considerably less
than earthly life but not nothingness. Sheol was not the exclusive abode of the
righteous or the wicked, but of everyone, and it is often used as a synonym for
death, as in Isa 28:15 (cf. 1 Sam 2:6; Job 21:13; Ps 6:5).
soteriological
Having to do with the concept or expectation of salvation.
suppliant/supplicant
Either an adjective or a noun. As a noun, a suppliant is a supplicant, a person
or group who make a humble request, usually in prayer (Zeph 3:10). A
supplication is the request, as in Ps 55:1.
syncretism
A blending of religious beliefs and practices from the cultural context. Many of
the prophets (e.g., Elijah in 1 Kgs 18; Jer 2–3; Hos 1–3) were gravely concerned
that the Israelites not adopt religious practices of the Canaanites or of other
tribal peoples. These concerns for purity escalated during exile and upon return
to Jerusalem (cf. 1 Esdras, in the Apocrypha). With zeal similar to the pious
Maccabees, some early Christians fought against Hellenism, the influence of
Greek culture, in an attempt to keep religious practices free of foreign
influence. Also an adjective, syncretistic.
syntax
The rules, written or conventional, in a language, that govern how words are
ordered and put together to form sentences; the patterns of words in sentences.
Features of syntax often differ from language to language, and these apparent
rules enable scholars to suspect that a manuscript in Greek may well have been
translated from Hebrew, if the word order in Greek is unusual in places but fits
Hebrew syntax.
tabernacle
The portable sanctuary used by the Israelites during the wilderness period. When
the Israelites traveled, the Levites were responsible for taking down the
tabernacle, packing it, then setting it up at the new encampment (Num 1:51). The
instructions for building the tabernacle (Exod 25–30) are elaborate, and we
observe some awkwardness between descriptions of a tabernacle and the tent of
meeting (Exod 33:7-11). It is not clear whether tabernacle or tent were the
same, were used in different time periods, or whether both were put into use.
theodicy
Attempts to answer or ponder whether a just and loving God, who created us, can
be all-powerful and all-knowing yet permit terrifying evil and painful
suffering. Or, when posed from the human perspective concerning divine justice,
we ask, “Why do bad things happen to good people, who know, love, and serve
God?” The book of Job wrestles with these questions about divine justice. A
“theodicy” consists of attempted answers or explanations, by prophets, priests,
and sages, for troublesome questions about divine justice.
theophany
An appearance of God to a human or to a group of people, as with the burning
bush to Moses (Exod 3:4) or the pillar of cloud or fire leading the people (Num
14:14). Also an adjective, theophanic.
Torah
Refers in general to the Jewish legal traditions, the Law, and in particular to
the first five books of the Hebrew Bible—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
and Deuteronomy—which form the first of the three divisions of the Jewish
Scriptures (Law, Prophet, and Writings). See “Pentateuch.”
tradition
This term is applied broadly in biblical studies. It often refers to a written
text—a story or some other small unit (e.g., the Tower of Babel, Gen 11:1-9), or
a series of related texts (“the Yahwist tradition”), a law, a song, or a
prayer—that was likely passed down orally through some generations before it was
committed to writing.
transcendent
An adjective meaning “above and beyond comprehension,” “superlative,” or “being
independent of the material world.” It is most often used as a description of
God, and is sometimes held in tension with the immanent God (i.e., God among
humans, or working among humans).
transfiguration
In biblical studies, this refers specifically to Jesus changing form in the
presence of some of the disciples. See Matt 17:1-9.
typology
In biblical studies, a method of looking at persons or events in the OT as
foreshadowings or prototypes of persons or events in the NT. A clear example is
Rom 5:14, where Paul sees Adam, “who is a type of the one who was to come.”
vindicate
This verb has a wide range of use, from clearing a person or people of blame
(Gen 20:16), to defending (2 Sam 18:31), to exacting revenge (Isa 34:8). Also a
noun, vindication.
votive
The word, “votive,” comes from the same Latin root as the word “vow”; a votive
offering is linked in some way to a vow. The votive was a gift to God that could
be given at the time of the vow (as the sailors in the midst of the storm, Jonah
1:16), or it could be given after the request, the reason for the vow, had been
granted. Votives are among a variety of sacrifices cataloged in the OT (e.g.,
Num 29:39).
Vulgate (Vg.)
The important Latin version of the Bible, officially recognized by the Roman
Catholic Church in 1546, for the most part derived from earlier translations
into Latin by Jerome (c. 400 CE), under the direction of the church.
Yahwism
A non-biblical term for Israel’s religion; the worship of YHWH (the LORD).
YHWH
The four letters of the personal name of Israel’s God. This divine name is
described as the Tetragrammaton, which is Greek for “the four letters.” Current
understanding is that the name was likely pronounced “Yahweh,” although in many
eras of Israel’s religious history and among many groups of worshiping people,
the name was considered too sacred to pronounce. Instead, the faithful said the
word ‘adonai (Lord) when reading or referring to Yahweh. In the NRSV and the
commentary, YHWH is generally rendered as “the LORD.”